It is estimated that over the next 20 years, one in every five persons will be over the age of 65. With this new demographic profile will come an increase in a wide variety of age-related conditions, including Alzheimer's disease (“AD”) and other forms of dementia. Dementia is a syndrome of progressive decline in multiple domains of cognitive function, eventually leading to an inability to maintain normal social and/or occupational performance. At present, AD is the most common form of dementia, afflicting approximately 4 million Americans. One in ten persons over the age of 65 and nearly half of those over the age of 85 suffer from AD, and AD is the fourth leading cause of death in the U.S. The cost to U.S. society is estimated to be at least $100 billion every year, making AD the third most costly disorder of aging.
Early identification is critical in progressive conditions such as AD, because early treatment may be more effective than later treatment in preserving cognitive function. Furthermore, early detection may allow time to explore options for treatment and care. However, early detection is compromised by the failure of many patients to report early symptoms of AD to their treating physicians, including memory lapses and mild but progressive deterioration of specific cognitive functions, such as language (aphasia), motor skills (apraxia) and perception (agnosia). In addition, studies have documented the difficulty experienced by even well-trained health care professionals in correctly diagnosing AD and other forms of dementia (Callahan, et al., Ann. Intern. Med. 122:422–429, 1995). Accordingly, a simple, sensitive, reliable, and easily administered AD diagnostic test would be of great assistance in targeting individuals for early intervention.
The earliest manifestation of AD is often memory impairment, which is a requirement in each of the two sets of criteria for diagnosis of dementia that are commonly used—the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke/Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Association (NINCDS/ADRDA) criteria, which are specific for Alzheimer's disease, and the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria, which are applicable for all forms of dementia. Therefore any test for AD or dementia associated with memory impairment should be most sensitive for the early detection of memory impairment. Conventional memory tests are not optimal for the detection of mild dementia or the early stages of Alzheimer's Disease. Some of these tests are inappropriately sensitive to the patient's educational level (White and Davis, J. Gen. Intern. Med., 5:438–445, 1990: McDowell and Kristjansson, Mental Status Testing, in Measuring Health: a guide to rating scales and questionnaires, 1996:287–334). They may also fail to test for certain types of memory loss that are typical of early dementia or Alzheimer's Disease, as well as fail to reflect whether compounds or therapy administered to treat dementia are having the desired effect. These tests also often suffer from a high rate of false negatives (low sensitivity) or false positives (low specificity).
Although there are many variations, a typical memory test is structured as follows. First, the tester presents to the subject a number of items (i.e., bowl, zebra, orange, anger, etc. . . . ) to be recalled from memory. The items may be presented orally, in writing, in pictures, or by any other suitable means. Sometimes the subject is also supplied with a cue associated with each or some of the items on the list. The cue typically is the category that encompasses the associated item or defines an aspect of the associated item, i.e., the cue “animal” or “stripes” might be presented in association with the item “zebra”. Certain conventional paired associate tests use unrelated nouns as cues for test items.
The presentation of items in association with a cue, where the subject must first identify the item from the cue, is known as “controlled learning”. Controlled learning is used in memory tests to assure the attention of the subject and the equal processing of all the items in a list. In addition, it shows that the subjects can identify items from their cues, and induces encoding specificity, by providing cues at the time of encoding information that can later be used to aid recall. The identification of items by matching the items with the associated cues verifies that the required processing was performed by the subject.
In the next step, the subject is asked to recall the items presented to him in the list, either from memory without presentation of the associated cue, known as “free recall”, or after being presented with the associated cue, known as “cued recall.” Cued recall may be used selectively to facilitate recall of those items not first recalled by free recall (without any cues).
Variations of memory tests include “controlled rehearsal”, which refers to a step wherein the subject is instructed to repeat each item as it is presented. Alternately, the subject may be asked to repeat the preceding item as the current item is presented, or the subject may be instructed to repeat both the preceding item and the current item. As with controlled learning, controlled rehearsal assures attention and equal processing of all items, and shows that the required processing was performed.
Some memory tests, particularly tests of delayed recall or forgetfulness, utilize interference delays between memory trials. Interference delays are periods of time between memory trials wherein an unrelated task is performed by the subject to prevent rehearsal by the subject. Common tasks performed to prevent rehearsal include having the subject count, spell, or perform a simple unrelated task.
“Controlled reminding” refers to a step wherein the subject is reminded of items that were not recalled during each trial. In free recall memory tests, the reminding would not occur until after the subject is given the opportunity to recall as many items as possible. In the case of cued recall, the subject is reminded of the item before the next cue is presented. Controlled reminding may be either “selective reminding”, wherein the subject is reminded each time the item is not recalled, or “restricted reminding”, wherein the subject is reminded only until the item is recalled once, either with or without presentation of the item. “Contingent learning” refers to maintaining a constant number of items to be learned. This can be done by adding new items as the old items are learned.
Memory tests known in the art include various combinations of the foregoing elements. For example, the memory component of the Free and Cued Selective Recall Test (“FCRST”) is comprised of an initial controlled learning step, where the patient must first identify items from their associated cues. The patient must then recall sixteen tests items from their associated category cues. Following a brief interference delay, the patient is then asked to recall as many of the presented items as she can by free recall, i.e., without the associated cues, followed by cued recall for items not remembered by free recall. If there are multiple trials, then the subject is selectively reminded (i.e., reminded each time an item is not recalled) of missed items before the next recall trial. The score is the total of uncued responses and cued responses, with each response (whether cued or uncued) worth one point.
Conventional memory tests are scored by tallying the total number of items recalled from a list of items previously presented to the subject, either within any one testing trial or across many testing trials. Each item recalled is accorded the same weight (“unit counting” or “unweighted counting”), so that a subject recalling items 1 to 5 of a ten item list would be judged to have the same measure of memory as a subject who recalled items 6 to 10 of the same ten item list. Further, a subject recalling items 1 to 5 of a ten item list in a first trial and items 6 to 10 in a second trial would be considered to have the same measure of memory as a subject who recalled items 1 to 5 in the first and second trials, but could not recall items 6 to 10 at all. Memory tests utilizing this type of unweighted counting assume that all the items presented and retrieved are equal in value, i.e., that the probability of encoding, learning, and retaining any single item is equal to the probability of encoding, learning and retaining any other items.
However, items in such a list differ in likelihood of recall, depending on a number of factors. Serial processing at input and output almost always result in “serial position effects”, which are differences in the frequency of recall among list items due to the order in which the items are presented. Simply put, some items are “harder” or “easier” to recall depending upon the order such items are presented to the subject. These serial position effects are illustrated for groups in serial position curves, which are graphs that show the percentage of subjects recalling the items of a list versus the order in which the items are presented or recalled. These serial position effects show that the probability of recall is affected by the order in which the items are presented (“presentation order”), or the order in which the items are recalled (“recall order”), or both. Important serial position effects include primacy (higher recall of earlier presented items) and recency (higher recall of the most recently presented items). Analysis of serial position effects is important because the display of certain serial position effects (or the lack thereof) may be associated with dementia. For instance, recall by normal aged subjects is characterized by primacy effects as well as recency effects, but recall by aged subjects with AD is characterized only by recency effects.
Also, unweighted counting ignores qualitative differences in memory impairment, that is, whether impairment in total memory is a result of deficiencies in a particular stage or facet of the memory process, namely a deficiency in encoding information, learning information or retaining information. Such qualitative differences may be essential for the diagnosis of AD or dementia characterized by memory impairment and to appropriately target and evaluate the efficacy of therapeutics directed to the treatment of AD or early dementia.
As a result, measuring memory by unweighted counting (i.e., unit weighting) may not be justified. Although unweighted or unit counting provides a lower bound for memory performance, it sacrifices statistical power by ignoring essential information about the serial position characteristics (probability of retrieval) of retrieved items and about the various processes involved in memory (i.e., encoding, learning and retention). A method of measuring memory that preserves information about the serial position effects of retrieved items or that pinpoints deficiencies in certain elements of total memory would improve the assessment of memory performance, aid in the earlier diagnosis of dementia and AD, and permit sophisticated screening of therapeutics directed to the treatment of AD or dementia.